Ux x XdK E QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H新东方在线[www.koolearn.coml网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1990年英译汉试题People have wondered for a long time how their personalities,and behaviors areformed.It is not easy to explain why one person is intelligent and another is not,orwhy one is cooperative and another is competitive.Social scientists are,of course,extremely interested in these types of questions.(61)They want to explain why we possess certain characteristics and exhibit certainbehaviors.There are no clear answers yet,but two distinct schools of thought on thematter have developed.As one might expect,the two approaches are very differentfrom each other.The controversy is often conveniently referred to as"nature vs.nurture”.(62)Those who support the "nature"side of the conflict believe that ourpersonalities and behavior patterns are largely determined by biological factors.(63)That our environment has little,if anything,to do with our abilities,characteristics and behavior is central to this theory.Taken to an extreme,this theorymaintains that our behavior is predetermined to such a great degree that we are almostcompletely governed by our instincts.Those who support the"nurture"theory,that is,they advocate education,areoften called behaviorists.They claim that our environment is more important than ourbiologically based instincts in determining how we will act.A behaviorist,B.F.Skinner,sees humans as beings whose behavior is almost completely shaped by theirsurroundings.The behaviorists maintain that,like machines,humans respond toenvironmental stimuli as the basis of their behavior.DLet us examine the different explanations about one human characteristic,intelligence,offered by the two theories.Supporters of the "nature"theory insist thatwe are born with a certain capacity for learning that is biologically determined.Needless to say,they don't believe that factors in the environment have muchinfluence on what is basically a predetermined characteristic.On the other hand,behaviorists argue that our intelligence levels are the product of our experiences.(64)Behaviorists suggest that the child who is raised in an environment where thereare many stimuli which develop his or her capacity for appropriate responses willexperience greater intellectual development.The social and political implications of these two theories are profound.In theUnited States,blacks often score below whites on standardized intelligence tests.Thisleads some "nature"proponents to conclude that blacks are biologically inferior towhites.(65)Behaviorists,in contrast,say that differences in scores are due to the factthat blacks are often deprived of many of the educational and other environmentaladvantages that whites enjoy.Most people think neither of these theories can yet fully explain human behavior.興尚甄素前阀Z.ZC.E] Ux x XdKE QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H.新东方在线[www.koolearn.coml网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1991年英译汉试题The fact is that the energy crisis,which has suddenly been officially announced,has been with us for a long time now,and will be with us for an even longer time.Whether Arab oil flows freely or not,it is clear to everyone that world industry cannotbe allowed to depend on so fragile a base.(71)The supply of oil can be shut offunexpectedly at any time,and in any case,the oil wells will all run dry in thirty yearsor so at the present rate of use.(72)New sources of energy must be found,and this will take time,but it is notlikely to result in any situation that will ever restore that sense of cheap and plentifulenergy we have had in the times past.For an indefinite period from here on,mankindis going to advance cautiously,and consider itself lucky that it can advance at all.To make the situation worse,there is as yet no sign that any slowing of theworld's population is in sight.Although the birthrate has dropped in some nations,including the United States,the population of the world seems sure to pass six billionand perhaps even seven billion as the twenty-first century opens.(73)The food supply will not increase nearly enough to match this,which meansthat we are heading into a crisis in the matter of producing and marketing food.Taking all this into account,what might we reasonably estimate supermarkets tobe like in the year2001?To begin with,the world food supply is going to become steadily tighter over thenext thirty years-even here in the United States.By2001,the population of theUnited States will be-at least-two_hundred fifty million and possibly two hundredseventy miltion,and the nation will find it difficult to expand food production to fillthe additional mouths.(74)This will be particularly true since energy pinch will makeit difficult to continue agriculture in the high energy American fashion that makes itpossible to combine few farmers with high yields.It seems almost certain that by2001the United States will no longer be a greatfood exporting nation and that,if necessity forces exports,it will be at the price of belttightening at home.In fact,as food items will end to decline in quality and decrease in variety,thereis very likely to be increasing use of flavoring additives.(75)Until such time asmankind has the sense to lower its population to the point where the planet canprovide a comfortable support for all,people will have to accept more "unnaturalfood".杨列興尚理筑素前阀Z.ZC.ET x x XdK E QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H新东方在线[www.koolearn.com网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1992年英译汉试题"Intelligence"at best is an assumptive construct-the meaning of the word hasnever been clear.(71)There is more agreement on the kinds of behavior referred to bythe term than there is on how to interpret or classify them.But it is generally agreedthat a person of high intelligence is one who can grasp ideas readily,makedistinctions,reason logically,and make use of verbal and mathematical symbols insolving problems.An intelligence test is a rough measure of a child's capacity forlearning the kinds of things required in school.It does not measure character,socialadjustment,physical endurance,manual skills,or artistic abilities.It is not supposedto-it was not designed for such purposes.(72)To criticize it for such failure isroughly comparable to criticizing a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity.The other thing we have to notice is that the assessment of the intelligence of anysubject is essentially a comparative affair.(73)Now since the assessment of intelligence is a comparative matter we must besure that the scale with which we are comparing our subjects provides a "valid"or"fair"comparison.It is here that some of the difficulties which interest us begin.Anytest performed involves at least three factors:the intention to do one's best,theknowledge required for understanding what you have to do,and the intellectual abilityto do it.(74)The first two must be equal for all who are being compared,if anycomparison in terms of intelligence is to be made.In school populations in our culturethese assumptions can be made fair and reasonable,and the value of intelligencetesting has been proved thoroughly.Its value lies,of course in its providing asatisfactory basis for prediction.No one is in the least interested in the marks a littlechild gets on his test;what we are interested in is whether we can conclude from hismark on the test that the child will do better or worse than other children of his age attasks which we think require "general intelligence".(75)On the whole such aconclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence,but only if the child canbe assumed to have had the same attitude towards the test as the others with whom heis being compared,and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant informationwhich they possessed.电子教材系列興尚理筑素前阀Z.ZC.ET Ux x XdK E QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H新东方在线[www.koolearn.coml网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1993年英译汉试题(71)The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of thenecessary mode of working of the human mind;it is simply the mode by which allphenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation.There is nomore difference,but there is just the same kind of difference,between the mentaloperations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person,as there is betweenthe operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher weighing out his goods incommon scales,and the operations of a chemist in performing a difficult and complexanalysis by means of his balance and finely graded weights.(72)It is not that thescales in the one case,and the balance in the other,differ in the principles of theirconstruction or manner of working;but that the latter is much finer apparatus and ofcourse much more accurate in its measurement than the former.You will understand this better,perhaps,if I give you some familiar examples(73)You have all heard it repeated that men of science work by means of induction)and deduction,that by the help of these operations,they,in a sort of sense,manage to extract from Nature certain natural laws,and that out of these,by somespecial skill of their own,they build up their theories.(74)And it is imagined by manythat the operations of the common mind can be by no means compared with theseprocesses,and that they have to be acquired by a sort of special training.To hear allthese large words,you would think that the mind of a man of science must beconstituted differently from that of his fellow men;but if you will not be frightenedby terms,you will discover that you are quite wrong,and that all these terribleapparatus are being used by yourselves every day and every hour of your lives.There is a well-known incident in one of Moliere's plays,where the authormakes the hero express unbounded delight on being told that he had been talkingprose (during the whole of his life.In the same way,I trust that you will takecomfort,and be delighted with yourselves,on the discovery that you have been actingon the principles of inductive and deductive philosophy during the same period.(75)Probably there is not one here who has not in the course of the day had occasionto set in motion a complex train of reasoning,of the very same kind,though differingin degree,as that which a scientific man goes through in tracing the causes of naturalphenomena.材系列興尚甄素前阀Z.ZC.ET Ux x XdKE QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H.新东方在线[www.koolearn.com网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1994年英译汉试题According to the new school of scientists,technology is an overlooked force inexpanding the horizons of scientific knowledge.(71)Science moves forward,they say,not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinarythings like improved techniques and tools.(72)"In short",a leader of the new schoolcontends,"the scientific revolution,as we call it,was largely the improvement andinvention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science ininnumerable directions."(73)Over the years,tools and technology themselves as asource of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians andphilosophers of science.The modern school that hails technology argues that suchmasters as Galileo,Newton,Maxwell,Einstein,and inventors such as Edison attachedgreat importance to,and derived great benefit from,craft information andtechnological devices of different kinds that were usable in scientific experiments.The centerpiece of the argument of a technology-yes,genius-no advocate was ananalysis of Galileo's role at the start of the scientific revolution.The wisdom of theday was derived from Ptolemy,an astronomer of the second century,whose elaboratesystem of the sky put Earth at the center of all heavenly motions.(74)Galileo'sgreatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly inventedtelescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather thanaround the Earth.But the real hero of the story,according to the new school ofscientists,was the long evolution in the improvement of machinery for makingeyeglasses.alyZ争r主H才WFederal policy is necessarily involved in the-technology vs.genius dispute.(75)Whether the Government should increase the financing of pure science at theexpense of technology or vice versa often depends on the issue of which is seen as thedriving force.络课堂电子教材系列興尚理筑素前阀Z.ZC.ET Ux x XdK E QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H新东方在线[www,koolearn.com]网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1995年英译汉试题The standardized educational or psychological tests that are widely used to aid inselecting,classifying,assigning,or promoting students,employees,and militarypersonnel have been the target of recent attacks in books,magazines,the daily press,and even in congress.(71)The target is wrong,for in attacking the tests,critics divertattention from the fault that lies with ill-informed or incompetent users.The teststhemselves are merely tools,with characteristics that can be measured with reasonableprecision under specified conditions.Whether the results will be valuable,meaningless,or even misleading depends partly upon the tool itself but largely uponthe user.All informed predictions of future performance are based upon some knowledgeof relevant past performance:school grades research productive,sales records,orwhatever is appropriate.(72)How well the predictions will be validated by laterperformance depends upon the amount,reliability,and appropriateness of theinformation used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted.Anyonewho keeps careful score knows that the information available is always incompleteand that the predictions are always subject to error.Standardized tests should be considered in this context.They provide a quick,objective method of getting some kids of information about what a person learned,theskills he has developed,or the kinds of person he is.The information so obtained has,qualitatively,the same advantages and shortcomings as other kinds of information.(73)Whether to use tests,other kinds of information,or both in a particular situationdepends,therefore,upon the evidence from experience concerning comparativevalidity and upon such factors as cost and availability.(74)In general,the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measuredcan be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured orpredicted cannot be well defined.Properly used,they provide a rapid means of gettingcomparable information about many people.Sometimes they identify students whosehigh potential has not been previously recognized,but there are many things they donot do.(75)For example,they do not compensate for gross social inequality,and thusdo not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown upunder more favorable circumstances.材系列興尚理筑素前阀Z.ZC.ET Ux x XdKE QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H.新东方在线[www.koolearn.com网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1996年英译汉试题The differences in relative growth of various areas of scientific research haveseveral causes.(71)Some of these causes are completely reasonable results of socialneeds.Others are reasonable consequences of particular advances in science being tosome extent self-accelerating.Some,however,are less reasonable processes ofdifferent growth in which preconceptions of the form scientific theory ought to take,by persons in authority,act to alter the growth pattern of different areas.This is a newproblem probably not yet unavoidable;but it is a frightening trend.(72)This trendbegan during the Second World War,when several governments came to theconclusion that the specific demands that a government wants to make of its scientificestablishment cannot generally be foreseen in detail.It can be predicted,however,thatfrom time to time questions will arise which will require specific scientific answers.Itis therefore generally valuable to treat the scientific establishment as a resource ormachine to be kept in functional order.(73)This seems mostly effectively done bysupporting a certain amount of research not related to immediate goals but of possibleconsequence in the future.This kind of support,like all government support,requires decisions about theappropriate recipients of funds.Decisions based on utility as opposed to lack of utilityare straightforward.But a decision among projects none of which has immediateutility is more difficult.The goal of the supporting agencies is the praisable one ofsupporting "good"as opposed to"bad"science,but a valid determination is difficultto make.Generally,the idea of good seience tends to become confused with thecapacity of the field in question to generate an elegant-theory.(74)However,the worldis so made that elegant systems are in principle unable to deal with some of theworld's more fascinating and delightful aspects.(75)New forms of thought as well asnew subjects for thought must arise in the future as they have in the past,giving riseto new standards of elegance.络课堂电子教材系列興尚理筑素前阀Z.ZC.ET Ux x XdK E QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H新东方在线[www.koolearn.coml网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1997年英译汉试题Do animals have rights?This is how the question is usually put.It sounds like auseful,ground-clearing way to start.(71)Actually,it isn't,because it assumes thatthere is an agreed account of human rights,which is something the world does nothave.On one view of rights,to be sure,it necessarily follows that animals have none.(72)Some philosophers argue that rights exist only within a social contract,as part ofan exchange of duties and entitlements.Therefore,animals cannot have rights.Theidea of punishing a tiger that kills somebody is absurd;for exactly the same reason,sois the idea that tigers have rights.However,this is only one account,and by no meansan uncontested one.It denies rights not only to animals but also to some people-forinstance,to infants,the mentally incapable and future generations.In addition,it isunclear what force a contract can have for people who never consented to it:how doyou reply to somebody who says"I don't like this contract"?The point is this:without agreement on the rights of people,arguing about therights of animals is fruitless.(73)It leads the discussion to extremes at the outset:itinvites you to think that animals should be treated either with the considerationhumans extend to other humans,or with no consideration at all.This is a false choice.Better to start with another,more fundamental,question:is the way we treat animals amoral issue at all?Many deny it.(74)Arguing from the view that humans are different from animalsin every relevant respect,extremists of this kind think that animals lie outside the areaof moral choice.Any regard for the suffering of animals is seen as a mistakeasentimental displacement of feeling that should properly be directed to other humans.This view,which holds that torturing a monkey is morally equivalent to choppingwood,may seem bravely"logical".In fact it is simply shallow:the confused centre isright to reject it.The most elementary form of moral reasoning-the ethicalequivalent of learning to crawl-is to weigh others'interests against one's own.Thisin turn requires sympathy and imagination:without which there is no capacity formoral thought.To see an animal in pain is enough,for most,to engage sympathy.(75)When that happens,it is not a mistake:it is mankind's instinct for moral reasoningin action,an instinct that should be encouraged rather than laughed at.到材系興尚理筑素前阀Z.ZC.ET Ux x XdKE QQT756294099 Ef..wet.E9Ri.H.新东方在线[www.koolearn.com网络课堂电子教材系列翻译强化1998年英译汉试题They were,by far,the largest and most distant objects that scientists had everdetected:a strip of enormous cosmic clouds some 15 billion light-years from earth.(71)But even more important,it was the farthest that scientists had been able to lookinto the past,for what they were seeing were the patterns and structures that existed15 billion years ago.That was just about the moment that the universe was born.Whatthe researchers found was at once both amazing and expected;the US NationalAeronautics and Space Administration's Cosmic Background Explorersatellite-Cobe-had discovered landmark evidence that the universe did in factbegin with the primeval explosion that has become known as the Big Bang(the theorythat the universe originated in an explosion from a single mass of energy.)(72)The existence of the giant clouds was virtually required for the Big Bang,first put forward in the 1920s,to maintain its reign as the dominant explanation of thecosmos.According to the theory,the universe burst into being as a submicroscopic,unimaginable dense knot of pure energy that flew outward in all directions,emittingradiation as it went,condensing into particles and then into atoms of gas.Overbillions of years,the gas was compressed by gravity into galaxies,stars,plants andeventually,even humans.Cobe is designed to see just the biggest structures,but astronomers would like tosee much smaller hot spots as well,the seeds of local objects like clusters and superclusters of galaxies.They shouldn't have long to wait.(73)Astrophysicists workingwith ground-based-detectors at-the South Pole and balloon-borne instruments areclosing in on such structures,and may report their findings soon.(74)If the small hot spots look as expected,that will be a triumph for yet anotherscientific idea,a refinement of the Big Bang called the inflationary universe theory.Inflation says that very early on,the universe expanded in size by more than a trilliontrillion trillion trillion fold in much less than a second,propelled by a sort ofantigravity.(75)Odd though it sounds,cosmic inflation is a scientifically plausibleconsequence of some respected ideas in elementary-particle physics,and manyastrophysicists have been convinced for the better part of a decade that it is true.电子教材系列興尚理筑素前阀Z.ZC.ET
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